Revolutions And Their Causes

French Revolution

In late summer 1795, the National Convention, now controlled by moderate elements of the upper and middle classes, wrote a new constitution. This new state structure granted universal manhood suffrage, but limited that power by establishing a system in which the mass of the population could only vote for electors who would, by legal requirements to hold public office, be men of means. Electors then elected the members of a reorganized bicameral legislative assembly as well as key provincial officials throughout France. The assembly would also choose the five-man executive committee, known as the Directory.

The new government went to great lengths to assure that the left did not regain power, decreeing that the new bicameral legislature be made up primarily of the members of the most recent National Convention, which had been moderate. From 1795 to 1797 the government maintained its power, but with little definitive policy. The Directory continued the French war effort, though less as a democratic crusade against tyranny than as a means of resolving the unemployment crisis in France. Large, victorious French armies lowered unemployment within France and guaranteed soldiers a steady paycheck to buy the goods they needed to survive. The Directory hoped that this increase in income would encourage an increase in demand, reinvigorating the French economy. In addition, from 1795 to 1799, the French armies were quite successful. Napoleon Bonaparte, a young Corsican in charge of French forces in Italy and then Egypt, won considerable fame for him with a series of brilliant victories, though the Egyptian campaign was ultimately fruitless When Napoleon returned to France in 1798 he was greeted as a hero.

In 1797, three members of the Directory, staged a coup and installed two new members to the Directory. This new Directory was powerfully conservative, initiating strong new financial policies and cracking down on radicalism through executions and other means. In 1798, in reaction to the coup and the reinstatement of the military draft, the left gained in public elections, but the Directory once again passed decrees assuring that the right would remain strongly in control. By 1799, facing a renewed threat from England, Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire, French military fortunes took a turn for the worse. Huge majorities of the French public began calling for peace at home and abroad.

In the democratic experiment that was the foundation of the second stage of the French Revolution, the will and desires of the people replaced the will and desires of the monarch. However, with democracy came terror; with terror came disillusionment; with disillusionment came reaction; with reaction came the end of the revolution.

There are many answers; too many to summarize here. Therefore, I will only offer a few select responses. In effect, this question asks if the French Revolution was really a "revolution". That depends on how you define the term, "revolution". Some historians argue that no matter how you define it, the French Revolution is a revolution because, among other reasons, it began revolutions and inspired revolutionary thought throughout Europe. However, if you define revolution as the lasting replacement of an old, conservative order with a new, liberal one, then the French Revolution does not meet that criterion. As history tells us, the Bourbon monarchy even returned to France after the defeat of Napoleon.

However, this fails to appreciate the real contribution of the French Revolution. For the first time in recorded history, societal elements from below rose up in the name of liberty, equality, and fraternity in order to obtain a life they thought they deserved as humans. Consider, furthermore, the revolution's contribution of ideas: the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, for example, marks the beginning of liberal individualism and rights consciousness on the European continent. In addition, wherever Napoleon expanded the borders of France--as he did until his defeat in 1815--he brought with him fair law practices, the destruction of privilege by birth, individual rights, education, et cetera. The mere fact that Napoleon was a dictator does not, therefore, require us to minimize the importance of the French Revolution, since in many ways Napoleons ideals were formed with the Revolution's forge. The French Revolution is momentous as a transformative event in Europe because it marks the beginning of the modern period in Europe, characterized by a general progress toward freedom, liberal government, and individual rights.

Causes of French Revolution:

No one factor was directly responsible for the French Revolution. Years of feudal oppression and fiscal mismanagement contributed to a French society that was ripe for revolt. Noting a downward economic spiral in the late 1700s, King Louis XVI brought in a number of financial advisors to review the weakened French treasury. Each advisor reached the same conclusion—that France needed a radical change in the way it taxed the public—and each advisor was, in turn, kicked out.

Finally, the king realized that this taxation problem really did need to be addressed, so he appointed a new controller general of finance, Charles de Calonne, in 1783. Calonne suggested that, among other things, France begin taxing the previously exempt nobility. The nobility refused, even after Calonne pleaded with them during the Assembly of Notables in 1787. Financial ruin thus seemed imminent.

Over the course of twenty-five years after the Seven Years' War, the government of France--the Bourgeoisie royalty, could not manage its finances on a sound basis. This was worsened when France aided the American Revolution against Great Britain. The Government had reached great financial debt. The problem lied and continued because of the government's inability to tap the wealth of the French nation by taxation. There was a great paradox in France being a rich nation with a government in poverty. The deteriorating finances of the government are what triggered the prolonged differences between the Bourgeoisie and the aristocracy.

Louis XIV had spent too much. His successors did not cut down expenses. Louis XVI also failed to improve the financial situation. He dismissed ministers who tried to introduce financial reforms. By 1789, the government was bankrupt.

When Louis XVI finally called the Estates General to solve financial difficulties, the Third Estate did not agree with the unfair system of the Estates General. They formed the National Assembly to make a constitution. People were afraid that the king would suppress the National Assembly. They were also discontented that the king dismissed Necker, the popular Finance Minister. The hungry Parisians, who suffered from bad harvest, burst out their anger by attacking the Bastille prison (for political prisoners). The Fall of Bastille started the French Revolution. It spread out to other parts of France.

The French Revolution was caused by the escalating rivalry between the monarchy and the aristocracy. The conflict would make an impact on all of Europe to come and even world history. All this turmoil was caused by a bunch of greedy Nobles and kings which wanted power and money. It seems this problem repeats history, even today -- because big money-makers, like Texas Oil Ranchers, wouldn't pay to fix pollution problems early on it eventually lead and is still leading to great conflict for the future.

Russian Revolutions

The Revolution of 1905

The Russian Revolution of 1905 began in St. Petersburg on Jan. 22 (Jan. 9, O.S.) when troops fired on a defenseless crowd of workers, who, led by a priest, were marching to the Winter Palace to petition Czar Nicholas II. This “bloody Sunday” was followed in succeeding months by a series of strikes, riots, assassinations, naval mutinies, and peasant outbreaks. These disorders, coupled with the disaster of the Russo-Japanese War (1904–5), which revealed the corruption and incompetence of the czarist regime, forced the government to promise the establishment of a consultative duma, or assembly, elected by limited franchise. Nonetheless, unsatisfied popular demands provoked a general strike, and in a manifesto issued in October the czar granted civil liberties and a representative duma to be elected democratically.

The manifesto split the groups that collectively had brought about the revolution. Those who were satisfied with the manifesto formed the Octobrist party. The liberals who wanted more power for the duma consolidated in the Constitutional Democratic Party. The Social Democrats, who had organized a soviet, or workers’ council, at St. Petersburg, attempted to continue the strike movement and compel social reforms. The government arrested the soviet and put down (Dec., 1905) a workers’ insurrection in Moscow.

When order was restored, the czar promulgated the Fundamental Laws, under which the power of the duma was limited. Some attempt at economic reform was made by the czar’s minister, Stolypin, but his efforts failed. At the same time Stolypin ruthlessly suppressed the revolutionary movement. When World War I broke out in 1914, most elements of Russia (except the Bolsheviks) united in supporting the war effort. However, the repeated military reverses, the acute food shortages, the appointment of inept ministers, and the intense suffering of the civilian population created a revolutionary climate by the end of 1916. The sinister influence of Rasputin over Czarina Alexandra Feodorovna, whom Nicholas had left in charge of the government when he took personal command of the armed forces in 1915, destroyed all support for the czar except among extreme reactionaries.

Russian Revolution 1917

The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a major turning point in history. It marked the end of a czar rule of the Romanovs, as well as the beginning of a communist rule. The Revolution didn't just consist of one event. It consisted of many. Some of these events were the Czarist wartime incompetence, the March Revolution, the Czar abdicating his throne, the provisional government failing, and the communists taking control.

By Mar., 1917 (the end of Feb., 1917, O.S., thus the name February Revolution), most of the workers in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) and Moscow were striking and rioting for higher food rations. Many of the soldiers refused to suppress the insurgents; military insubordination and mutiny spread. Nicholas II ineffectually sought to put down the workers by force and also dissolved (Mar. 11, N.S. /Feb. 26, O.S.) the Duma. The Duma refused to obey, and the Petrograd insurgents took over the capital. Nicholas was forced to abdicate (Mar. 15, N.S. /Mar. 2, O.S.) at Pskov after the Duma had appointed a provisional government composed mainly of moderates; it was headed by Prince Lvov and included Milyukov and Kerensky.

In March the soviet demanded peace. Milyukov, the foreign minister, was forced to resign in May after demonstrations against his insistence on continuing the war. The cabinet was reorganized and several other socialists, in addition to Kerensky, were added. Kerensky took over as minister of war, and Viktor Chernov, a Socialist Revolutionary, became minister of agriculture.

In Apr., 1917, Lenin and other revolutionaries returned to Russia after having been permitted by the German government to cross Germany. The Germans hoped that the Bolsheviks would undermine the Russian war effort. Lenin galvanized the small and theretofore cautious Bolshevik party into action. The courses he advocated were simplified into the powerful slogans “end the war,” “all land to the peasants,” and “all power to the soviets.” The failure of the all-out military offensive in July increased discontent with the provisional government, and disorders and violence in Petrograd led to popular demands for the soviet to seize power. The Bolsheviks assumed direction of this movement, but the soviet still held back. The government then took strong measures against the Bolshevik press and leaders. Nevertheless, the position of the provisional government was precarious.

Causes of Revolution

The Russian revolution was caused by the continual breakdown of the governments in Russia and the in competency and authoritarian views of its czars. Their failures as leaders included policies that neither pleased nor benefited the people. By the end of the nineteenth century, Russia's economy, government, military, and social organization was at an extreme decline. Russia had become the least advanced of the major European nations in terms of political and social development. There was no parliament, and no middle class. The Church, officers, and other important people and institutions were firmly against social progress. The disastrous defeat of Russia in the Crimean War in 1855 and 1856 exposed weaknesses of Russia's various organizations. For the first few decades of the 1800's, Russia's outlook was brighter under Alexander I, who was relatively liberal. He became more reactionary however, and following his death, a group of young army officers tried to overturn the Czardom. This was called the Decembrist Revolt. The next czar, Nicholas, was a die hard authoritarian. The Administrative system continued to decay regardless of his iron fisted rule. The gap between the rich and the poorer continued to widen. Over five hundred peasant revolts took place during his reign. Alexander II, who took the throne in 1855 tried to avert revolt by attempting reform. In 1861 he freed the serfs and gave them expectations of free land allotments. But to their surprise, and anger, they were only given the opportunity to share it as members of a village commune (mir). In addition, the mir had to pay back the government for the land over a period of 49 years with interest. Alexander also formed a series of elected local councils that gave districts restricted jurisdiction of certain aspects of life. He too became more of a reactionary towards the end of his reign. The result was his assassination by a group of conspirators called the People's Will movement. The next Czar, Alexander III, was yet another reactionary. He was active in silencing criticism of the government, exiling agitators, and stamping out revolutionary groups.

Industrialization began to appear and with it an increase of dissatisfied workers. They were underpaid and forced to work in unfavorable conditions. The peasants farmers were doing fine on their farms but a famine in 1891 caused extensive suffering. Revolts again became fairly frequent. Intellectual groups organized and continued the fight against serfdom and autocracy. At the beginning of the 20th century, Russian people were in the mood for revolution. The loss of the Russo Japanese war to Japan, and the resulting hardships, made concrete the opposition to the autocracy. In December of 1904, unrest surfaced in Baku. Strikes occurred in factories in the capital. Priest Father Gapon lead a peaceful march to petition the czar for a redress of grievances but it ended violently with the Czar's troops firing on the crowd.

In October of 1905 a general strike was declared that crippled the country. On October 30th, Nicholas dispatched the historical October Manifesto which provided for a constitution under which civil liberties were granted and an elected state institution called the duma was formed. This broke the czar's absolute power. However, the czar chose reactionary ministers to lead the duma and the secret police force was improved and strengthened. The first two were filled with radicals but quickly dissolved.

The members of the third were conservative in outlook. Social conditions improved too slowly to reverse public opposition to the absolute monarchy. Poor political and military leadership in the First World War led to widespread desertion of Russian soldiers. Their army suffered great casualties and a battered economy. It was the accumulation of discontent for governments, czar's, and living conditions along with Russian defeats in various wars, including WWI, of the working class citizens in Russia that eventually boiled over and resulted in revolution. The public dissatisfaction continued to fill for over a decade like a powderkeg and eventually was set off and caused an explosion of great impact to the future of Russia.

They displayed their anger in various ways, but the authoritarian Czar's which attained power did not react to the incoming tide. In fact, they resisted change at every avenue possible and proved to outrage certain people to such a point that Czar's were assassinated. By 1917, the Russian people had had enough, and a public disturbance in Petrograd soon spread throughout the city and had become a widespread revolt. The resulting revolution proved to restructure the politics in Russia for years to come.